C 6

Carbon (C)

nonmetal

Period: 2 Group: 14 Block: p

Solid

Standard Atomic Weight

Electron configuration

[He] 2s² 2p²

Melting point

3549.85 °C (3823 K)

Boiling point

3824.85 °C (4098 K)

Density

2267 kg/m³

Oxidation states

−4, −3, −2, −1, 0, +1, +2, +3, +4

Electronegativity (Pauling)

2.55

Ionization energy (1st)

Discovery year

1797

Atomic radius

70 pm

Details

Name origin Latin: carbo, (charcoal).

Discoverers Known to the ancients

Carbon is a nonmetal in group 14 and the defining element of organic chemistry. Its small atoms form strong covalent bonds with carbon and many other elements, allowing chains, rings, networks, and multiple bonds of great diversity. It occurs naturally as graphite, diamond, amorphous carbon-rich materials, carbonate minerals, fossil carbon, dissolved carbon species, and as a central element in living matter.

Carbon is a member of group 14 of the periodic table. It has three allotropic forms of it, diamonds, graphite and fullerite. Carbon-14 is commonly used in radioactive dating. Carbon occurs in all organic life and is the basis of organic chemistry. Carbon has the interesting chemical property of being able to bond with itself, and a wide variety of other elements.

The name derives from the Latin carbo for "charcoal". It was known in prehistoric times in the form of charcoal and soot. In 1797, the English chemist Smithson Tennant proved that diamond is pure carbon.

Carbon, the sixth most abundant element in the universe, has been known since ancient times. Carbon is most commonly obtained from coal deposits, although it usually must be processed into a form suitable for commercial use. Three naturally occurring allotropes of carbon are known to exist: amorphous, graphite and diamond.

From the Latin word carbo: charcoal. Carbon, an element of prehistoric discovery, is very widely distributed in nature. It is found in abundance in the sun, stars, comets, and atmospheres of most planets. Carbon in the form of microscopic diamonds is found in some meteorites.

Natural diamonds are found in kimberlite of ancient volcanic "pipes," found in South Africa, Arkansas, and elsewhere. Diamonds are now also being recovered from the ocean floor off the Cape of Good Hope. About 30% of all industrial diamonds used in the U.S. are now made synthetically.

The energy of the sun and stars can be attributed at least in part to the well-known carbon-nitrogen cycle.

Read about Carbon on Wikipedia

Images

Properties

Physical

Atomic radius (empirical) 70 pm

Covalent radius 76 pm

Van der Waals radius 170 pm

Density

Molar volume 0.0053 L/mol

Phase at STP solid

Melting point 3549.85 °C

Boiling point 3824.85 °C

Thermal conductivity 1.59 W/(m·K)

Specific heat capacity 0.709 J/(g·K)

Molar heat capacity 8.517 J/(mol·K)

Crystal structure diamond

Chemical

Electronegativity (Pauling) 2.55

Electronegativity (Allen) 2.544

Electron affinity

Ionization energy (1st)

Ionization energy (2nd)

Ionization energy (3rd)

Ionization energy (4th)

Ionization energy (5th)

Oxidation states −4, −3, −2, −1, 0, +1, +2, +3, +4

Valence electrons 4

Allotropes ["graphite"]

Electron configuration

Electron configuration (semantic)

Thermodynamic

Triple point (temperature) 4489 °C

Triple point (pressure) 1.030000e+7 Pa

Heat of vaporization 7.410478 eV

Heat of sublimation 7.42789 eV

Heat of atomization 7.42789 eV

Atomization enthalpy

Nuclear

Stable isotopes 2

Discovery year 1797

Abundance

Abundance (Earth's crust) 200 mg/kg

Abundance (ocean)

Reactivity

N/A

Crystal Structure

Lattice constant a 357 pm

Electronic Structure

Electrons per shell 2, 4

Identifiers

CAS number 7440-44-0

Term symbol

InChI InChI=1S/C

InChI Key OKTJSMMVPCPJKN-UHFFFAOYSA-N

Electron Configuration Measured

Ion charge

Protons 6

Electrons 6

Charge Neutral

Configuration C: 2s² 2p²

[He] 2s² 2p²

1s² 2s² 2p²

Orbital diagram

↑↓

2/2

↑↓

2/2

↑

2/6 2↑

Total electrons: 6 Unpaired: 2

Atomic model

Protons 6

Neutrons 6

Electrons 6

Mass number 12

Stability Stable

Isotopes change neutron count, mass, and stability — not the electron configuration of a neutral atom.

Schematic atomic model, not to scale.

Atomic Fingerprint

Emission / Absorption Spectrum

Emission Visible: 380–750 nm

Isotope Distribution

Mass number	Atomic mass (u)	Natural abundance	Half-life
12 Stable	12	98.9300%	Stable
13 Stable	13.00335483507 ± 0.00000000023	1.0700%	Stable

Measured

Phase / State

Solid 25 °C (298.15 K)

Reason: 3799.8 °C below sublimation point (3824.85 °C)

Sublimation point 3824.85 °C

0 K Current temperature: 25 °C 6000 K

Phase timeline

Schematic, not to scale

Solid

Gas

Sublimation

25°C

Solid

Liquid

Gas

Current

Phase transition points

Sublimation point Literature

3824.85 °C

Current phase Calculated
Solid

Transition energies

Heat of vaporization Literature

7.410478 eV

Energy required to vaporize 1 mol at boiling point

Heat of sublimation Literature

7.42789 eV

Energy required to sublime 1 mol at sublimation point

Density

Reference density Literature

2267 kg/m³

At standard conditions

Current density Calculated

2267 kg/m³

At standard conditions

Advanced

Triple point Literature

4489 °C

Atomic Spectra

Showing 10 of 11 Atomic Spectra. Sorted by ion charge (ascending).

Lines Holdings ?

Ion	Charge	Total lines	Transition probabilities	Level designations
C I	0	2102	1616	2102
12C I Isotope	0	89	0	89
13C I Isotope	0	89	0	89
12C II Isotope	+1	187	0	187
14C II Isotope	+1	187	0	187
C II	+1	1605	1433	1605
13C II Isotope	+1	187	0	187
C III	+2	882	878	878
C IV	+3	259	224	255
C V	+4	149	146	147

NIST Lines Holdings →

Levels Holdings ?

Ion	Charge	Levels
C I	0	435
12C I Isotope	0	33
13C I Isotope	0	33
12C II Isotope	+1	36
14C II Isotope	+1	36
C II	+1	415
13C II Isotope	+1	36
C III	+2	201
C IV	+3	107
C V	+4	156

NIST Levels Holdings →

6 C 12.0106

Carbon — Atomic Orbital Visualizer

[He]2s22p2

Energy levels 2 4

Oxidation states -4, -3, -2, -1, 0, +1, +2, +3, +4

HOMO 2p n=2 · l=1 · m=-1

Carbon — Atomic Orbital Visualizer Preview

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6 C 12.0106

Carbon — Crystal Structure Visualizer

Face-Centered Cubic · Pearson cF8

Experimental

Pearson cF8

Coord. № 4

Packing 34.000%

Carbon — Crystal Structure Visualizer Preview

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Ionic Radii

Charge	Coordination	Spin	Radius
+4	4	N/A	15 pm
+4	6	N/A	16 pm

Compounds

12.011 u

Isotopes (2)

Carbon has seven isotopes. In 1961 the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry adopted the isotope carbon-12 as the basis for atomic weights. Carbon-14, an isotope with a half-life of 5715 years, has been widely used to date such materials as wood, archaeological specimens, etc.

	Mass number	Atomic mass (u)	Natural abundance	Half-life	Decay mode
	12 Stable	12	98.9300% ± 0.0800%	Stable	stable
	13 Stable	13.00335483507 ± 0.00000000023	1.0700% ± 0.0800%	Stable	stable

12 Stable

Atomic mass (u) 12

Natural abundance 98.9300% ± 0.0800%

Half-life Stable

Decay mode

stable

13 Stable

Atomic mass (u) 13.00335483507 ± 0.00000000023

Natural abundance 1.0700% ± 0.0800%

Half-life Stable

Decay mode

stable

Spectral Lines

Showing 50 of 993 Spectral Lines. Only spectral lines with measured intensity are shown by default.

Wavelength (nm)	Intensity	Ion stage	Type	Transition	Accuracy	Source
505.214927 nm	160000	C I	emission	2s2.2p.3s 1P* → 2s2.2p.4p 1D	Measured	NIST
538.033014 nm	120000	C I	emission	2s2.2p.3s 1P* → 2s2.2p.4p 1P	Measured	NIST
711.31656 nm	110000	C I	emission	2s2.2p.3p 3D → 2s2.2p.4d 3F*	Measured	NIST
493.202524 nm	73000	C I	emission	2s2.2p.3s 1P* → 2s2.2p.4p 1S	Measured	NIST
477.173374 nm	69000	C I	emission	2s2.2p.3s 3P* → 2s2.2p.4p 3P	Measured	NIST
711.697758 nm	45000	C I	emission	2s2.2p.3p 3D → 2s2.2p.5s 3P*	Measured	NIST
658.76211 nm	40000	C I	emission	2s2.2p.3p 1P → 2s2.2p.4d 1P*	Measured	NIST
579.311495 nm	38000	C I	emission	2s.2p3 3D* → 2s2.2p.4p 3P	Measured	NIST
711.96559 nm	37000	C I	emission	2s2.2p.3p 3D → 2s2.2p.5s 3P*	Measured	NIST
580.059993 nm	35000	C I	emission	2s.2p3 3D* → 2s2.2p.4p 3P	Measured	NIST
600.1123 nm	35000	C I	emission	2s2.2p.3p 3D → 2s2.2p.6s 3P*	Measured	NIST
477.589266 nm	34000	C I	emission	2s2.2p.3s 3P* → 2s2.2p.4p 3P	Measured	NIST
437.13814 nm	33000	C I	emission	2s2.2p.3s 1P* → 2s2.2p.5p 1P	Measured	NIST
711.145795 nm	32000	C I	emission	2s2.2p.3p 3D → 2s2.2p.4d 3F*	Measured	NIST
682.814076 nm	27000	C I	emission	2s2.2p.3p 1P → 2s2.2p.4d 1D*	Measured	NIST
504.149039 nm	25000	C I	emission	2s.2p3 3D* → 2s2.2p.(2P*<1/2>).4f 2[5/2]	Measured	NIST
477.002376 nm	24000	C I	emission	2s2.2p.3s 3P* → 2s2.2p.4p 3P	Measured	NIST
600.6012 nm	23000	C I	emission	2s2.2p.3p 3D → 2s2.2p.5d 3D*	Measured	NIST
665.55294 nm	20000	C I	emission	2s2.2p.3p 1P → 2s2.2p.5s 1P*	Measured	NIST
710.011312 nm	19000	C I	emission	2s2.2p.3p 3D → 2s2.2p.5s 3P*	Measured	NIST
566.894 nm	18000	C I	emission	2s2.2p.3p 1P → 2s2.2p.5d 1P*	Measured	NIST
596.933151 nm	18000	C I	emission	2s.2p3 3D* → 2s2.2p.4p 3D	Measured	NIST
708.782188 nm	18000	C I	emission	2s2.2p.3p 3D → 2s2.2p.4d 3D*	Measured	NIST
402.94119 nm	16000	C I	emission	2s2.2p.3s 3P* → 2s2.2p.5p 3P	Measured	NIST
601.64487 nm	16000	C I	emission	2s2.2p.3p 3D → 2s2.2p.5d 3F*	Measured	NIST
473.426281 nm	15000	C I	emission	2s.2p3 3D* → 2s2.2p.5p 3P	Measured	NIST
481.737213 nm	15000	C I	emission	2s2.2p.3s 3P* → 2s2.2p.4p 3S	Measured	NIST
579.446608 nm	15000	C I	emission	2s.2p3 3D* → 2s2.2p.4p 3P	Measured	NIST
748.344451 nm	15000	C I	emission	2s2.2p.3p 3S → 2s2.2p.4d 3P*	Measured	NIST
406.52425 nm	14000	C I	emission	2s2.2p.3s 3P* → 2s2.2p.5p 3D	Measured	NIST
580.52017 nm	14000	C I	emission	2s.2p3 3D* → 2s2.2p.4p 3P	Measured	NIST
601.4833 nm	14000	C I	emission	2s2.2p.3p 3D → 2s2.2p.6s 3P*	Measured	NIST
710.89263 nm	14000	C I	emission	2s2.2p.3p 3D → 2s2.2p.5s 3P*	Measured	NIST
400.9928 nm	13000	C I	emission	2s2.2p.3s 1P* → 2s2.2p.6p 1P	Measured	NIST
422.83269 nm	13000	C I	emission	2s2.2p.3s 1P* → 2s2.2p.5p 1S	Measured	NIST
447.85821 nm	13000	C I	emission	2s.2p3 3D* → 2s2.2p.(2P*<1/2>).5f 2[5/2]	Measured	NIST
504.012903 nm	12000	C I	emission	2s.2p3 3D* → 2s2.2p.(2P*<1/2>).4f 2[7/2]	Measured	NIST
601.0669 nm	12000	C I	emission	2s2.2p.3p 3D → 2s2.2p.6s 3P*	Measured	NIST
406.4264 nm	11000	C I	emission	2s2.2p.3s 3P* → 2s2.2p.5p 3D	Measured	NIST
639.7965 nm	11000	C I	emission	2s2.2p.3p 3S → 2s2.2p.6s 3P*	Measured	NIST
666.3043 nm	11000	C I	emission	2s2.2p.3p 3P → 2s2.2p.5d 3D*	Measured	NIST
667.1849 nm	11000	C I	emission	2s2.2p.3p 3P → 2s2.2p.6s 3P*	Measured	NIST
403.180216 nm	10000	C I	emission	2s2.2p.3s 3P* → 2s2.2p.5p 3P	Measured	NIST
482.679468 nm	10000	C I	emission	2s2.2p.3s 3P* → 2s2.2p.4p 3S	Measured	NIST
598.903753 nm	10000	C I	emission	2s.2p3 3D* → 2s2.2p.4p 3D	Measured	NIST
707.649944 nm	9900	C I	emission	2s2.2p.3p 3D → 2s2.2p.4d 3D*	Measured	NIST
402.284321 nm	9700	C I	emission	2s2.2p.3s 3P* → 2s2.2p.5p 3P	Measured	NIST
555.1578 nm	9600	C I	emission	2s2.2p.3p 3D → 2s2.2p.7s 3P*	Measured	NIST
600.7173 nm	9600	C I	emission	2s2.2p.3p 3D → 2s2.2p.6s 3P*	Measured	NIST
502.492938 nm	9400	C I	emission	2s.2p3 3D* → 2s2.2p.(2P*<3/2>).4f 2[7/2]	Measured	NIST

Extended Properties

Covalent Radii (Extended)

Covalent radius (Pyykkö)

Covalent radius (Pyykkö, double)

Covalent radius (Pyykkö, triple)

Covalent radius (Bragg)

Van der Waals Radii

Bondi

Batsanov

Alvarez

UFF

MM3

Dreiding

Rowland–Taylor

Atomic & Metallic Radii

Atomic radius (Rahm)

Metallic radius (C12)

Numbering Scales

Mendeleev

Pettifor

Glawe

Electronegativity Scales

Ghosh

Miedema

Gunnarsson–Lundqvist

Robles–Bartolotti

Polarizability & Dispersion

Dipole polarizability

Dipole polarizability (unc.)

C₆

C₆ (Gould–Bučko)

Miedema Parameters

Miedema molar volume

Miedema electron density

Supply Risk & Economics

Production concentration

Relative supply risk

Reserve distribution

Political stability (top producer)

Political stability (top reserve)

Phase Transitions & Allotropes

graphite Sublimation

Boiling point	4098.15 K
Triple point (temperature)	4762.15 K
Triple point (pressure)	10300 kPa

Oxidation State Categories

−1 extended

−2 extended

0 extended

+1 extended

+4 main

−4 main

+2 extended

+3 extended

−3 extended

Advanced Reference Data

Screening Constants (3)

n	Orbital	σ
1	s	0.3273
2	p	2.8642
2	s	2.7834

Crystal Radii Detail (3)

Charge	CN	r_crystal (pm)	Origin
4	III	6
4	IV	29	Pauling's (1960) crystal radius,
4	VI	30	Ahrens (1952) ionic radius,

Isotope Decay Modes (27)

Isotope	Mode	Intensity
8	2p	100%
9	B+	100%
9	B+p	7.5%
9	B+A	38.4%
10	B+	100%
11	B+	100%
14	B-	100%
15	B-	100%
16	B-	100%
16	B-n	99%

X‑ray Scattering Factors (502)

Energy (eV)	f₁	f₂
10	—	0.80688
10.1617	—	0.85152
10.3261	—	0.89863
10.4931	—	0.94834
10.6628	—	1.0008
10.8353	—	1.05755
11.0106	—	1.12167
11.1886	—	1.18968
11.3696	—	1.26181
11.5535	—	1.33832

Additional Data

Estimated Crustal Abundance

The estimated element abundance in the earth's crust.

2.00×102 milligrams per kilogram

References (1)

[5] Carbon https://education.jlab.org/itselemental/ele006.html

Estimated Oceanic Abundance

The estimated element abundance in the earth's oceans.

2.8×101 milligrams per liter

References (1)

[5] Carbon https://education.jlab.org/itselemental/ele006.html

Isotopes in Forensic Science and Anthropology

Information on the use of this element's isotopes in forensic science and anthropology.

Variations in the isotope-amount ratio n(13C)/n(12C) of biological products can be observed using isotope-ratio mass spectrometry (IRMS) to detect adulteration (the addition of inferior ingredients) in honey and other food products.

The isotope-amount ratio n(13C)/n(12C) can fluctuate between carbon sources, for example C3 plants (found in temperate climates and which use atmospheric carbon dioxide to make a 3-carbon molecule during photosynthesis — examples include rice, potatoes, tomatoes, and sugar beets), C4 plants (found in hot climates and which use atmospheric carbon dioxide to make a 4-carbon molecule during photosynthesis — examples include corn and sugar cane), animal carbon, atmospheric CO2, etc. This commonly makes it possible to detect whether these different carbon sources have been mixed by using isotope or mass balance to distinguish, for example, between beet sugar and cane sugar. Complications in source identification can arise with plants that open stomata at night to collect carbon dioxide to use a third mechanism to fix atmospheric carbon dioxide (CAM or crassulacean acid metabolism). The isotope-amount ratio n(13C)/n(12C) of CAM plants overlaps that of C3 or C4 plants — examples include pineapples and jade plants. The following adulterations are commonly detected using stable carbon isotope IRMS:

–Variations in the isotope-amount ratio n(13C)/n(12C) of honey are used to detect the addition (and potential adulteration) of high fructose corn syrup, corn, or sugar cane [67] [67] C. Cordella, I. Moussa, A. C. Martel, N. Sbirrazzuoli, L. Lizzani-Cuvelier. J. Agric. Food. Chem.50, 1751 (2002).[67] C. Cordella, I. Moussa, A. C. Martel, N. Sbirrazzuoli, L. Lizzani-Cuvelier. J. Agric. Food. Chem.50, 1751 (2002)..

–Variations in the isotope-amount ratio n(13C)/n(12C) of fruit juice have been used to detect the addition of a sugar [67] [67] C. Cordella, I. Moussa, A. C. Martel, N. Sbirrazzuoli, L. Lizzani-Cuvelier. J. Agric. Food. Chem.50, 1751 (2002).[67] C. Cordella, I. Moussa, A. C. Martel, N. Sbirrazzuoli, L. Lizzani-Cuvelier. J. Agric. Food. Chem.50, 1751 (2002)..

–Variations in the isotope-amount ratio n(13C)/n(12C) of natural vanilla extract have been used to detect the addition of artificial vanillin or p-hydroxybenzaldehyde [67] [67] C. Cordella, I. Moussa, A. C. Martel, N. Sbirrazzuoli, L. Lizzani-Cuvelier. J. Agric. Food. Chem.50, 1751 (2002).[67] C. Cordella, I. Moussa, A. C. Martel, N. Sbirrazzuoli, L. Lizzani-Cuvelier. J. Agric. Food. Chem.50, 1751 (2002)..

–Variations in the isotope-amount ratio n(13C)/n(12C) of beer are used to detect C4 carbon, which would indicate that a beer company may have added ingredients that are not traditionally used in brewing beer. Therefore, this ratio is used to detect the misrepresentation of a product as being pure [67] [67] C. Cordella, I. Moussa, A. C. Martel, N. Sbirrazzuoli, L. Lizzani-Cuvelier. J. Agric. Food. Chem.50, 1751 (2002).[67] C. Cordella, I. Moussa, A. C. Martel, N. Sbirrazzuoli, L. Lizzani-Cuvelier. J. Agric. Food. Chem.50, 1751 (2002)., [68] [68] J. R. Brooks, N. Buchmann, S. Phillips, B. Ehleringer, R. D. Evans, M. Lott, L. A. Martinelli, W. T. Pockman, D. Sandquist, J. P. Sparks, L. Sperry, D. Williams, J. R. Ehleringer. J. Agric. Food. Chem.50, 6413 (2002).[68] J. R. Brooks, N. Buchmann, S. Phillips, B. Ehleringer, R. D. Evans, M. Lott, L. A. Martinelli, W. T. Pockman, D. Sandquist, J. P. Sparks, L. Sperry, D. Williams, J. R. Ehleringer. J. Agric. Food. Chem.50, 6413 (2002)..

Stable carbon IRMS has been used to determine if the botanical origin of an alcoholic spirit has been mislabeled and if chaptalization (the process of adding sugar to increase the alcoholic content) of wine has occurred [67] [67] C. Cordella, I. Moussa, A. C. Martel, N. Sbirrazzuoli, L. Lizzani-Cuvelier. J. Agric. Food. Chem.50, 1751 (2002).[67] C. Cordella, I. Moussa, A. C. Martel, N. Sbirrazzuoli, L. Lizzani-Cuvelier. J. Agric. Food. Chem.50, 1751 (2002)., [68] [68] J. R. Brooks, N. Buchmann, S. Phillips, B. Ehleringer, R. D. Evans, M. Lott, L. A. Martinelli, W. T. Pockman, D. Sandquist, J. P. Sparks, L. Sperry, D. Williams, J. R. Ehleringer. J. Agric. Food. Chem.50, 6413 (2002).[68] J. R. Brooks, N. Buchmann, S. Phillips, B. Ehleringer, R. D. Evans, M. Lott, L. A. Martinelli, W. T. Pockman, D. Sandquist, J. P. Sparks, L. Sperry, D. Williams, J. R. Ehleringer. J. Agric. Food. Chem.50, 6413 (2002).. 14C scintillation counting has been used to determine the age of wine and alcoholic spirits [67] [67] C. Cordella, I. Moussa, A. C. Martel, N. Sbirrazzuoli, L. Lizzani-Cuvelier. J. Agric. Food. Chem.50, 1751 (2002).[67] C. Cordella, I. Moussa, A. C. Martel, N. Sbirrazzuoli, L. Lizzani-Cuvelier. J. Agric. Food. Chem.50, 1751 (2002)., [68] [68] J. R. Brooks, N. Buchmann, S. Phillips, B. Ehleringer, R. D. Evans, M. Lott, L. A. Martinelli, W. T. Pockman, D. Sandquist, J. P. Sparks, L. Sperry, D. Williams, J. R. Ehleringer. J. Agric. Food. Chem.50, 6413 (2002).[68] J. R. Brooks, N. Buchmann, S. Phillips, B. Ehleringer, R. D. Evans, M. Lott, L. A. Martinelli, W. T. Pockman, D. Sandquist, J. P. Sparks, L. Sperry, D. Williams, J. R. Ehleringer. J. Agric. Food. Chem.50, 6413 (2002).. Variations in the isotope-amount ratio n(13C)/n(12C) of urine has been used to determine if steroids in urine are natural or of synthetic origin. These measurements enable anti-doping laboratories to perfect their methods for detecting steroid doping in athletes [69] [69] B. D. Ahrens, A. W. Butch. Drug Test Anal.5, 534 (2013).[69] B. D. Ahrens, A. W. Butch. Drug Test Anal.5, 534 (2013)., [70] [70] E. Bulska, D. Gorczyca, I. Zalewska, A. Pokrywka, D. Kwiatkowska. J. Pharm. Biomed. Anal.106, 159 (2015).[70] E. Bulska, D. Gorczyca, I. Zalewska, A. Pokrywka, D. Kwiatkowska. J. Pharm. Biomed. Anal.106, 159 (2015)., [71] [71] A. Casilli, T. Piper, F. A. de Oliveira, M. Costa Padilha, H. Marcelo Pereira, M. Thevis, F. R. de Aquino Neto. Drug Test Anal.8, 1204 (2016).[71] A. Casilli, T. Piper, F. A. de Oliveira, M. Costa Padilha, H. Marcelo Pereira, M. Thevis, F. R. de Aquino Neto. Drug Test Anal.8, 1204 (2016).. Variations in the isotope-amount ratio n(13C)/n(12C) of marijuana can provide information to determine if the plants were grown “inside” a building or greenhouse or were “open grown” (Fig. IUPAC.6.4). Plant carbon isotopic compositions are controlled by atmospheric CO2 and the supply and demand of CO2 in photosynthesis (the process used by plants to convert light energy from the sun into chemical energy). “Open grown” plants are grown in an area that is well ventilated and receives natural CO2. In contrast, plants grown “inside” receive supplemented CO2 and the photosynthesis process is more confined. Additionally, CO2 from a tank of compressed gas used to augment atmospheric CO2 to increase the growth of marijuana plants is commonly highly depleted in 13C as a refinery by-product. These differences change the carbon isotope ratios of the plants and the ratios vary enough to enable the determination of the growing and cultivation process of marijuana [72] [72] E. K. Shibuya, J. E. Souza Sarkis, O. N. Neto, M. Z. Moreira, R. L. Victoria. Forensic Sci. Int.160, 35 (2006).[72] E. K. Shibuya, J. E. Souza Sarkis, O. N. Neto, M. Z. Moreira, R. L. Victoria. Forensic Sci. Int.160, 35 (2006)., [73] [73] J. B. West, J. M. Hurley, J. R. Ehleringer. J Forensic Sci.54, 84 (2009).[73] J. B. West, J. M. Hurley, J. R. Ehleringer. J Forensic Sci.54, 84 (2009)..

References (9)

[67] C. Cordella, I. Moussa, A. C. Martel, N. Sbirrazzuoli, L. Lizzani-Cuvelier. J. Agric. Food. Chem.50, 1751 (2002).
[68] J. R. Brooks, N. Buchmann, S. Phillips, B. Ehleringer, R. D. Evans, M. Lott, L. A. Martinelli, W. T. Pockman, D. Sandquist, J. P. Sparks, L. Sperry, D. Williams, J. R. Ehleringer. J. Agric. Food. Chem.50, 6413 (2002).
[69] B. D. Ahrens, A. W. Butch. Drug Test Anal.5, 534 (2013).
[70] E. Bulska, D. Gorczyca, I. Zalewska, A. Pokrywka, D. Kwiatkowska. J. Pharm. Biomed. Anal.106, 159 (2015).
[71] A. Casilli, T. Piper, F. A. de Oliveira, M. Costa Padilha, H. Marcelo Pereira, M. Thevis, F. R. de Aquino Neto. Drug Test Anal.8, 1204 (2016).
[72] E. K. Shibuya, J. E. Souza Sarkis, O. N. Neto, M. Z. Moreira, R. L. Victoria. Forensic Sci. Int.160, 35 (2006).
[73] J. B. West, J. M. Hurley, J. R. Ehleringer. J Forensic Sci.54, 84 (2009).
[74] United States Drug Enforcement Administration. Marijuana-Indoor Marijuana Grow, United States Department of Justice (2014), Feb. 22; http://www.justice.gov/dea/pr/multimedia-library/image-gallery/images_marijuana.shtml.
[4] IUPAC Periodic Table of the Elements and Isotopes (IPTEI) https://doi.org/10.1515/pac-2015-0703

References

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1 PubChem

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2 Atomic Mass Data Center (AMDC), International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA)

The half-life and atomic mass data was provided by the Atomic Mass Data Center at the International Atomic Energy Agency.

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3 IUPAC Commission on Isotopic Abundances and Atomic Weights (CIAAW)

Carbon

Element data are cited from the Atomic weights of the elements (an IUPAC Technical Report). The IUPAC periodic table of elements can be found at https://iupac.org/what-we-do/periodic-table-of-elements/. Additional information can be found within IUPAC publication doi:10.1515/pac-2015-0703 Copyright © 2020 International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry.

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4 IUPAC Periodic Table of the Elements and Isotopes (IPTEI)

The information are cited from Pure Appl. Chem. 2018; 90(12): 1833-2092, https://doi.org/10.1515/pac-2015-0703.

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License note: Copyright (c) 2020 International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry. The International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) contribution within Pubchem is provided under a CC-BY-NC-ND 4.0 license, unless otherwise stated.

5 Jefferson Lab, U.S. Department of Energy

Carbon

Thomas Jefferson National Accelerator Facility (Jefferson Lab) is one of 17 national laboratories funded by the U.S. Department of Energy. The lab's primary mission is to conduct basic research of the atom's nucleus using the lab's unique particle accelerator, known as the Continuous Electron Beam Accelerator Facility (CEBAF). For more information visit https://www.jlab.org/

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6 Los Alamos National Laboratory, U.S. Department of Energy

Carbon

The periodic table at the LANL (Los Alamos National Laboratory) contains basic element information together with the history, source, properties, use, handling and more. The provenance data may be found from the link under the source name.

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7 NIST Physical Measurement Laboratory

Carbon

The periodic table contains NIST's critically-evaluated data on atomic properties of the elements. The provenance data that include data for atomic spectroscopy, X-ray and gamma ray, radiation dosimetry, nuclear physics, and condensed matter physics may be found from the link under the source name. Ref: https://www.nist.gov/pml/atomic-spectra-database

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8 PubChem Elements

Carbon

This section provides all form of data related to element Carbon.

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9 PubChem Elements

Carbon

The element property data was retrieved from publications.

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Last updated: May 1, 2026