V 23

Vanadium (V)

transition-metal

Period: 4 Group: 5 Block: s

Solid

Standard Atomic Weight

Electron configuration

[Ar] 4s² 3d³

Melting point

1909.85 °C (2183 K)

Boiling point

3406.85 °C (3680 K)

Density

6000 kg/m³

Oxidation states

−3, −1, 0, +1, +2, +3, +4, +5

Electronegativity (Pauling)

1.63

Ionization energy (1st)

Discovery year

1830

Atomic radius

135 pm

Details

Name origin From Scandinavian goddess, Vanadis.

Discovery country Sweden

Discoverers Nils Sefström

Vanadium is a hard early transition metal with variable oxidation states and strong affinity for oxygen, nitrogen, and carbon. It occurs mainly dispersed in minerals rather than as native metal. Its technological importance comes chiefly from alloying steel and from vanadium redox-flow batteries. Chemically it is notable for accessible +2, +3, +4, and +5 states, often producing distinctly colored ions and oxides.

Pure vanadium is a bright white metal, and is soft and ductile. It has good corrosion resistance to alkalis, sulfuric and hydrochloric acid, and salt water, but the metal oxidizes readily above 660°C.

The metal has good structural strength and a low fission neutron cross section, making it useful in nuclear applications.

The name derives from the Scandinavian goddess of love and beauty, Freyja Vanadis, because of its many beautiful multi-coloured compounds. Vanadium was discovered by the Swedish physician and chemist Nils-Gabriel Sefström in 1830.

Vanadium had originally been discovered by the Spanish mineralogist Andres Manuel del Rio y Fernandez in 1801, who named it erythronium, after the plant of that name whose flowers have many beautiful colours. Del Rio later decided that it was really chromium in his lead sample. Vanadium metal was first isolated by the English chemist Henry Enfield Roscoe in 1869.

Vanadium was discovered by Andrés Manuel del Rio, a Spanish chemist, in 1801. Rio sent samples of vanadium ore and a letter describing his methods to the Institute de France in Paris, France, for analysis and confirmation. Unfortunately for Rio, his letter was lost in a shipwreck and the Institute only received his samples, which contained a brief note describing how much this new element, which Rio had named erythronium, resembled chromium. Rio withdrew his claim when he received a letter from Paris disputing his discovery. Vanadium was rediscovered by Nils Gabriel Sefstrôm, a Swedish chemist, in 1830 while analyzing samples of iron from a mine in Sweden. Vanadium was isolated by Sir Henry Enfield Roscoe, an English chemist, in 1867 by combining vanadium trichloride (VCl3) with hydrogen gas (H2). Today, vanadium is primarily obtained from the minerals vanadinite (Pb5(VO)3Cl) and carnotite (K2(UO2)2VO4·1-3H2O) by heating crushed ore in the presence of carbon and chlorine to produce vanadium trichloride. The vanadium trichloride is then heated with magnesium in an argon atmosphere.

Named after Scandinavian goddess, Vanadis. Vanadium was first discovered by del Rio in 1801. Unfortunately, a French chemist incorrectly declared that del Rio's new element was only impure chromium. Del Rio thought himself to be mistaken and accepted the French chemists' statement.

The element was rediscovered in 1830 by Sefstrom, who named the element in honor of the Scandinavian goddess, Vanadis, because of its beautiful multicolored compounds. It was isolated in nearly pure form by Roscoe, who in 1867 reduced the chloride with hydrogen.

Vanadium of 99.3 to 99.8% purity was not produced until 1922.

Read about Vanadium on Wikipedia

Images

Properties

Physical

Atomic radius (empirical) 135 pm

Covalent radius 153 pm

Van der Waals radius 179 pm

Metallic radius 122 pm

Density

Molar volume 0.00835 L/mol

Phase at STP solid

Melting point 1909.85 °C

Boiling point 3406.85 °C

Thermal conductivity 30.7 W/(m·K)

Specific heat capacity 0.489 J/(g·K)

Molar heat capacity 24.89 J/(mol·K)

Crystal structure bcc

Chemical

Electronegativity (Pauling) 1.63

Electronegativity (Allen) 1.53

Electron affinity

Ionization energy (1st)

Ionization energy (2nd)

Ionization energy (3rd)

Ionization energy (4th)

Ionization energy (5th)

Oxidation states −3, −1, 0, +1, +2, +3, +4, +5

Valence electrons 5

Electron configuration

Electron configuration (semantic)

Thermodynamic

Heat of fusion 0.22283256 eV

Heat of vaporization 4.76758 eV

Heat of sublimation 5.329326 eV

Heat of atomization 5.329326 eV

Atomization enthalpy

Nuclear

Stable isotopes 1

Discovery year 1830

Abundance

Abundance (Earth's crust) 120 mg/kg

Abundance (ocean)

Reactivity

N/A

Crystal Structure

Lattice constant a 302 pm

Electronic Structure

Electrons per shell 2, 8, 11, 2

Identifiers

CAS number 7440-62-2

Term symbol

InChI InChI=1S/V

InChI Key LEONUFNNVUYDNQ-UHFFFAOYSA-N

Electron Configuration Measured

Ion charge

Protons 23

Electrons 23

Charge Neutral

Configuration V: 3d³ 4s²

[Ar] 3d³ 4s²

1s² 2s² 2p⁶ 3s² 3p⁶ 3d³ 4s²

Orbital diagram

↑↓

2/2

↑↓

2/2

↑↓

6/6

↑↓

2/2

↑↓

6/6

↑↓

2/2

↑

3/10 3↑

Total electrons: 23 Unpaired: 3

Atomic model

Protons 23

Neutrons 28

Electrons 23

Mass number 51

Stability Stable

Isotopes change neutron count, mass, and stability — not the electron configuration of a neutral atom.

Schematic atomic model, not to scale.

Atomic Fingerprint

Emission / Absorption Spectrum

Emission Visible: 380–750 nm

Isotope Distribution

Mass number	Atomic mass (u)	Natural abundance	Half-life
51 Stable	50.94395704 ± 0.00000094	99.7500%	Stable

Measured

Phase / State

Solid 25 °C (298.15 K)

Reason: 1884.8 °C below melting point (1909.85 °C)

Melting point 1909.85 °C

Boiling point 3406.85 °C

Below melting by 1884.8 °C

0 K Current temperature: 25 °C 6000 K

Phase timeline

Schematic, not to scale

Solid

Liquid

Gas

Melting

Boiling

25°C

Solid

Liquid

Gas

Current

Phase transition points

Melting point Literature

1909.85 °C

Boiling point Literature

3406.85 °C

Current phase Calculated
Solid

Transition energies

Heat of fusion Literature

0.22283256 eV

Energy required to melt 1 mol at melting point

Heat of vaporization Literature

4.76758 eV

Energy required to vaporize 1 mol at boiling point

Heat of sublimation Literature

5.329326 eV

Energy required to sublime 1 mol at sublimation point

Density

Reference density Literature

6000 kg/m³

At standard conditions

Current density Calculated

6000 kg/m³

At standard conditions

Atomic Spectra

Showing 10 of 23 Atomic Spectra. Sorted by ion charge (ascending).

Lines Holdings ?

Ion	Charge	Total lines	Transition probabilities	Level designations
V I	0	3985	1256	3985
V II	+1	3568	1896	3568
V III	+2	94	30	30
V IV	+3	423	300	423
V V	+4	164	10	164
V VI	+5	175	4	175
V VII	+6	39	9	39
V VIII	+7	69	19	69
V IX	+8	72	44	72
V X	+9	69	45	69

NIST Lines Holdings →

Levels Holdings ?

Ion	Charge	Levels
V I	0	550
V II	+1	408
V III	+2	300
V IV	+3	100
V V	+4	71
V VI	+5	62
V VII	+6	35
V VIII	+7	52
V IX	+8	39
V X	+9	28

NIST Levels Holdings →

23 V 50.9415

Vanadium — Atomic Orbital Visualizer

[Ar]4s23d3

Energy levels 2 8 11 2

Oxidation states -3, -1, 0, +1, +2, +3, +4, +5

HOMO 3d n=3 · l=2 · m=-2

Vanadium — Atomic Orbital Visualizer Preview

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23 V 50.9415

Vanadium — Crystal Structure Visualizer

Body-Centered Cubic · Pearson cI2

Experimental

Pearson cI2

Coord. № 8

Packing 68.000%

Vanadium — Crystal Structure Visualizer Preview

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Ionic Radii

Charge	Coordination	Spin	Radius
+2	6	N/A	79 pm
+3	6	N/A	64 pm
+4	5	N/A	53 pm
+4	6	N/A	57.99999999999999 pm
+4	8	N/A	72 pm
+5	4	N/A	35.5 pm
+5	5	N/A	46 pm
+5	6	N/A	54 pm

Compounds

50.941 u

50.944 u

V+4

50.941 u

47.952 u

46.955 u

V+2

50.941 u

51.945 u

48.949 u

Isotopes (1)

Natural vanadium is a mixture of two isotopes, 50V (0.24%) and 51V (99.76%). 50V is slightly radioactive, having a half-life of> 3.9 x 1017 years. Nine other unstable isotopes are recognized.

	Mass number	Atomic mass (u)	Natural abundance	Half-life	Decay mode
	51 Stable	50.94395704 ± 0.00000094	99.7500% ± 0.0040%	Stable	stable

51 Stable

Atomic mass (u) 50.94395704 ± 0.00000094

Natural abundance 99.7500% ± 0.0040%

Half-life Stable

Decay mode

stable

Spectral Lines

Showing 50 of 2461 Spectral Lines. Only spectral lines with measured intensity are shown by default.

Wavelength (nm)	Intensity	Ion stage	Type	Transition	Accuracy	Source
437.92304 nm	74000000	V I	emission	3d4.(5D).4s a 6D → 3d4.(5D).4p y 6F*	Measured	NIST
411.17788 nm	53000000	V I	emission	3d4.(5D).4s a 6D → 3d4.(5D).4p y 6D*	Measured	NIST
438.4713 nm	44000000	V I	emission	3d4.(5D).4s a 6D → 3d4.(5D).4p y 6F*	Measured	NIST
438.99793 nm	30000000	V I	emission	3d4.(5D).4s a 6D → 3d4.(5D).4p y 6F*	Measured	NIST
440.85162 nm	29000000	V I	emission	3d4.(5D).4s a 6D → 3d4.(5D).4p y 6F*	Measured	NIST
411.51768 nm	25000000	V I	emission	3d4.(5D).4s a 6D → 3d4.(5D).4p y 6D*	Measured	NIST
439.52233 nm	23000000	V I	emission	3d4.(5D).4s a 6D → 3d4.(5D).4p y 6F*	Measured	NIST
440.81958 nm	23000000	V I	emission	3d4.(5D).4s a 6D → 3d4.(5D).4p y 6F*	Measured	NIST
385.58404 nm	18000000	V I	emission	3d3.4s2 a 4F → 3d4.(5D).4p y 4D*	Measured	NIST
412.80642 nm	18000000	V I	emission	3d4.(5D).4s a 6D → 3d4.(5D).4p y 6D*	Measured	NIST
413.19909 nm	18000000	V I	emission	3d4.(5D).4s a 6D → 3d4.(5D).4p y 6D*	Measured	NIST
409.97833 nm	17000000	V I	emission	3d4.(5D).4s a 6D → 3d4.(5D).4p y 6D*	Measured	NIST
410.5157 nm	17000000	V I	emission	3d4.(5D).4s a 6D → 3d4.(5D).4p y 6D*	Measured	NIST
440.76338 nm	17000000	V I	emission	3d4.(5D).4s a 6D → 3d4.(5D).4p y 6F*	Measured	NIST
384.074941 nm	16000000	V I	emission	3d3.4s2 a 4F → 3d4.(5D).4p y 4D*	Measured	NIST
390.22531 nm	14000000	V I	emission	3d3.4s2 a 4F → 3d4.(5D).4p y 4F*	Measured	NIST
410.97575 nm	14000000	V I	emission	3d4.(5D).4s a 6D → 3d4.(5D).4p y 6D*	Measured	NIST
413.44835 nm	14000000	V I	emission	3d4.(5D).4s a 6D → 3d4.(5D).4p y 6D*	Measured	NIST
440.66382 nm	14000000	V I	emission	3d4.(5D).4s a 6D → 3d4.(5D).4p y 6F*	Measured	NIST
446.02914 nm	13000000	V I	emission	3d4.(5D).4s a 6D → 3d4.(5D).4p z 6P*	Measured	NIST
412.34985 nm	12000000	V I	emission	3d4.(5D).4s a 6D → 3d4.(5D).4p y 6D*	Measured	NIST
409.26831 nm	11000000	V I	emission	3d4.(5D).4s a 6D → 3d4.(5D).4p y 6D*	Measured	NIST
411.64716 nm	11000000	V I	emission	3d4.(5D).4s a 6D → 3d4.(5D).4p y 6D*	Measured	NIST
382.855694 nm	10000000	V I	emission	3d3.4s2 a 4F → 3d4.(5D).4p y 4D*	Measured	NIST
387.507162 nm	9000000	V I	emission	3d3.4s2 a 4F → 3d4.(5D).4p y 4F*	Measured	NIST
459.41158 nm	8900000	V I	emission	3d3.4s2 a 4F → 3d3.(4F).4s.4p.(3P) z 4G	Measured	NIST
440.05717 nm	8800000	V I	emission	3d4.(5D).4s a 6D → 3d4.(5D).4p y 6F*	Measured	NIST
609.02084 nm	8100000	V I	emission	3d4.(5D).4s a 4D → 3d4.(5D).4p z 4P*	Measured	NIST
386.48561 nm	7900000	V I	emission	3d3.4s2 a 4F → 3d4.(5D).4p y 4F*	Measured	NIST
381.82414 nm	7800000	V I	emission	3d3.4s2 a 4F → 3d4.(5D).4p y 4D*	Measured	NIST
569.85189 nm	7200000	V I	emission	3d4.(5D).4s a 4D → 3d4.(5D).4p y 4F*	Measured	NIST
435.28654 nm	6600000	V I	emission	3d3.4s2 a 4F → 3d3.(4F).4s.4p.(3P) z 4F	Measured	NIST
445.97536 nm	6300000	V I	emission	3d4.(5D).4s a 6D → 3d4.(5D).4p z 6P*	Measured	NIST
381.349106 nm	6000000	V I	emission	3d3.4s2 a 4F → 3d4.(5D).4p y 4D*	Measured	NIST
458.6366 nm	5700000	V I	emission	3d3.4s2 a 4F → 3d3.(4F).4s.4p.(3P) z 4G	Measured	NIST
570.3575 nm	5600000	V I	emission	3d4.(5D).4s a 4D → 3d4.(5D).4p y 4F*	Measured	NIST
624.31073 nm	5500000	V I	emission	3d4.(5D).4s a 6D → 3d3.(4F).4s.4p.(3P) z 6D	Measured	NIST
409.0568 nm	5300000	V I	emission	3d4.(5D).4s a 4D → 3d3.(4F).4s.4p.(1P) w 4F	Measured	NIST
488.15569 nm	5300000	V I	emission	3d3.4s2 a 4F → 3d3.(4F).4s.4p.(3P) z 4D	Measured	NIST
444.168 nm	5200000	V I	emission	3d4.(5D).4s a 6D → 3d4.(5D).4p z 6P*	Measured	NIST
572.70445 nm	5100000	V I	emission	3d4.(5D).4s a 4D → 3d4.(5D).4p y 4F*	Measured	NIST
434.0998 nm	5000000	V I	emission	3d3.4s2 a 4F → 3d3.(4F).4s.4p.(3P) z 4F	Measured	NIST
458.03967 nm	4400000	V I	emission	3d3.4s2 a 4F → 3d3.(4F).4s.4p.(3P) z 4G	Measured	NIST
487.54859 nm	4400000	V I	emission	3d3.4s2 a 4F → 3d3.(4F).4s.4p.(3P) z 4D	Measured	NIST
409.54749 nm	4300000	V I	emission	3d4.(5D).4s a 4D → 3d3.(4F).4s.4p.(1P) w 4F	Measured	NIST
389.01792 nm	4200000	V I	emission	3d3.4s2 a 4F → 3d3.(4F).4s.4p.(3P) z 2G	Measured	NIST
390.98572 nm	4200000	V I	emission	3d3.4s2 a 4F → 3d4.(5D).4p y 4F*	Measured	NIST
441.64662 nm	4000000	V I	emission	3d4.(5D).4s a 6D → 3d4.(5D).4p y 6F*	Measured	NIST
442.15674 nm	4000000	V I	emission	3d4.(5D).4s a 6D → 3d4.(5D).4p y 6F*	Measured	NIST
443.78304 nm	4000000	V I	emission	3d4.(5D).4s a 6D → 3d4.(5D).4p z 6P*	Measured	NIST

Extended Properties

Covalent Radii (Extended)

Covalent radius (Pyykkö)

Covalent radius (Pyykkö, double)

Covalent radius (Pyykkö, triple)

Van der Waals Radii

Batsanov

Alvarez

UFF

MM3

Atomic & Metallic Radii

Atomic radius (Rahm)

Metallic radius (C12)

Numbering Scales

Mendeleev

Pettifor

Glawe

Electronegativity Scales

Ghosh

Miedema

Robles–Bartolotti

Polarizability & Dispersion

Dipole polarizability

Dipole polarizability (unc.)

C₆

C₆ (Gould–Bučko)

Chemical Affinity

Proton affinity

Gas basicity

Miedema Parameters

Miedema molar volume

Miedema electron density

Supply Risk & Economics

Production concentration

Relative supply risk

Reserve distribution

Political stability (top producer)

Political stability (top reserve)

Phase Transitions & Allotropes

Melting point	2183.15 K
Boiling point	3680.15 K

Oxidation State Categories

+5 main

0 extended

+4 extended

+3 extended

−3 extended

−1 extended

+1 extended

+2 extended

Advanced Reference Data

Screening Constants (7)

n	Orbital	σ
1	s	0.5744
2	p	3.9272
2	s	6.8186
3	d	14.0171
3	p	12.215
3	s	11.2907
4	s	18.0188

Crystal Radii Detail (8)

Charge	CN	r_crystal (pm)	Origin
2	VI	93
3	VI	78	from r^3 vs V plots,
4	V	67
4	VI	72	from r^3 vs V plots,
4	VIII	86	estimated,
5	IV	49.5	from r^3 vs V plots,
5	V	60
5	VI	68

Isotope Decay Modes (52)

Isotope	Mode	Intensity
39	p	—
40	p	—
41	p	—
42	p	—
43	B+	100%
43	B+p	2.5%
44	B+	100%
44	B+A	—
44	B+p	—
45	B+	100%

X‑ray Scattering Factors (504)

Energy (eV)	f₁	f₂
10	—	1.06459
10.1617	—	1.11805
10.3261	—	1.17419
10.4931	—	1.23315
10.6628	—	1.29507
10.8353	—	1.3601
11.0106	—	1.42839
11.1886	—	1.50012
11.3696	—	1.57258
11.5535	—	1.6378

Additional Data

Estimated Crustal Abundance

The estimated element abundance in the earth's crust.

1.20×102 milligrams per kilogram

References (1)

[5] Vanadium https://education.jlab.org/itselemental/ele023.html

Estimated Oceanic Abundance

The estimated element abundance in the earth's oceans.

2.5×10-3 milligrams per liter

References (1)

[5] Vanadium https://education.jlab.org/itselemental/ele023.html

Sources

Sources of this element.

Vanadium is found in about 65 different minerals among which are carnotite, roscoelite, vanadinite, and patronite, important sources of the metal. Vanadium is also found in phosphate rock and certain iron ores, and is present in some crude oils in the form of organic complexes. It is also found in small percentages in meteorites.

Commercial production from petroleum ash holds promise as an important source of the element. High-purity ductile vanadium can be obtained by reduction of vanadium trichloride with magnesium or with magnesium-sodium mixtures.

Much of the vanadium metal being produced is now made by calcium reduction of V2O5 in a pressure vessel, an adaption of a process developed by McKechnie and Seybair.

References (1)

[6] Vanadium https://periodic.lanl.gov/23.shtml

References

(9)

1 PubChem

Data deposited in or computed by PubChem

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2 Atomic Mass Data Center (AMDC), International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA)

The half-life and atomic mass data was provided by the Atomic Mass Data Center at the International Atomic Energy Agency.

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3 IUPAC Commission on Isotopic Abundances and Atomic Weights (CIAAW)

Vanadium

Element data are cited from the Atomic weights of the elements (an IUPAC Technical Report). The IUPAC periodic table of elements can be found at https://iupac.org/what-we-do/periodic-table-of-elements/. Additional information can be found within IUPAC publication doi:10.1515/pac-2015-0703 Copyright © 2020 International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry.

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4 IUPAC Periodic Table of the Elements and Isotopes (IPTEI)

The information are cited from Pure Appl. Chem. 2018; 90(12): 1833-2092, https://doi.org/10.1515/pac-2015-0703.

Visit source License

License note: Copyright (c) 2020 International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry. The International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) contribution within Pubchem is provided under a CC-BY-NC-ND 4.0 license, unless otherwise stated.

5 Jefferson Lab, U.S. Department of Energy

Vanadium

Thomas Jefferson National Accelerator Facility (Jefferson Lab) is one of 17 national laboratories funded by the U.S. Department of Energy. The lab's primary mission is to conduct basic research of the atom's nucleus using the lab's unique particle accelerator, known as the Continuous Electron Beam Accelerator Facility (CEBAF). For more information visit https://www.jlab.org/

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License note: Please see citation and linking information: https://education.jlab.org/faq/index.html

6 Los Alamos National Laboratory, U.S. Department of Energy

Vanadium

The periodic table at the LANL (Los Alamos National Laboratory) contains basic element information together with the history, source, properties, use, handling and more. The provenance data may be found from the link under the source name.

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7 NIST Physical Measurement Laboratory

Vanadium

The periodic table contains NIST's critically-evaluated data on atomic properties of the elements. The provenance data that include data for atomic spectroscopy, X-ray and gamma ray, radiation dosimetry, nuclear physics, and condensed matter physics may be found from the link under the source name. Ref: https://www.nist.gov/pml/atomic-spectra-database

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8 PubChem Elements

Vanadium

This section provides all form of data related to element Vanadium.

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9 PubChem Elements

Vanadium

The element property data was retrieved from publications.

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Last updated: May 1, 2026

Data verified: May 12, 2026

Content is reviewed against latest scientific data.